Religious Studies Guide to Critical Analysis of Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral

The study of religion, as an interdisciplinary field, mobilizes various theories, methods, and analytical approaches to explore and analyze an event, film, a building, religious practices, beliefs, institutions, and experiences. That being so, I propose to make a critical analysis of the Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral through the theoretical lenses of Emile Durkheim, Mircea Eliade and Clifford Geertz. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Notre-Dame de Paris is the most famous of the Gothic cathedrals of the Middle Ages and is distinguished for its size, antiquity, and architectural interest. Notre-Dame, whose foundation stone was laid in 1163, was built on the ruins of two earlier churches. (Britannica)

What views does each of these three religious theorists have of the Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral and how does each of them understand its fire that took place on April 15, 2019, and its complete restoration in November 2024? Their various approaches allow us to understand religion not only as a set of beliefs, but also as a social, historical, and cultural phenomenon. A combination of theories is often needed to understand the complexity of religious practices and their impact on individuals and societies.

Analyzing the Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral through the theoretical lenses of Émile Durkheim, Mircea Eliade, and Clifford Geertz reveals different dimensions of its cultural, religious, and social significance.

Émile Durkheim

For Émile Durkheim Religion is seen as a social force that promotes social cohesion and reinforces collective norms as he points out that “religion is something eminently social. Religious representations are collective representations which express collective realities.” (Durkheim, 9) That being so, Durkheim would see the Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral as a central institution that fosters social cohesion and represents the collective consciousness of French society. Durkheim strengthens his understanding of religion by explaining that “By gathering together almost always at fixed times, collective life could indeed achieve its maximum intensity and efficacy, and so give man a more vivid sense of his dual existence and his dual nature.” (Durkheim, 164-165) Moreover Durkheim points out that, “The very fact of assembling is an exceptionally powerful stimulant. Once the individuals are assembled, their proximity generates a kind of electricity that quickly transports them to an extraordinary degree of exaltation.” (Durkheim, 162) His concept of the sacred and profane remains central. This is what leads him to define religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to them.” (Durkheim, 14-15)

As a place of worship and a cultural symbol, the cathedral embodies the sacred, creating a distinction between the sacred and profane. According to Durkheim, the world of the profane is the one in which a human languidly lives his daily life, whereas the world of the sacred is the one you cannot penetrate without abruptly entering relations with extraordinary powers that excite you to the point of delirium” (Durkheim, 164) Given that as defined by Emile Durkheim, “The rites are a manner of acting which take rise in the midst of the assembled groups and which are destined to excite, maintain or recreate certain mental states in these groups,” (Durkheim, 9-10) Rituals performed within Notre-Dame, such as Masses and public ceremonies, serve to unite individuals under shared beliefs and reinforce a sense of belonging to the Catholic and national communities.

Regarding the fire that destroyed the cathedral in April 2019, Durkheim would see the Notre-Dame fire as an event that temporarily disrupted the collective consciousness of French society but also generated a moment of collective effervescence. The fire mobilized national and international solidarity, as seen in the outpouring of grief, donations, and calls for restoration. Notre-Dame, as a sacred symbol of shared identity, underscores its importance in maintaining societal cohesion and how its partial destruction unified communities in mourning and rebuilding efforts.

Thus, the analysis of the Notre-Dame de Paris cathedral, its fire and its restoration through the theoretical lens of Emile Durkheim allows us to understand its role in social integration, the unifying effect of the fire and its disruption of collective identity.

Mircea Eliade

Mircea Eliade focuses on the role of the sacred in human religious experience and on myths and rituals as ways of connecting humans to transcendental realities. When it comes to the analysis of the Notre-Dame de Paris cathedral, what is Eliade’s view of the Notre-Dame de Paris? How does he understand its fire and restoration?

Stating that “There are privileged places, qualitatively different from all others (…) there are holy places…,” (Eliade, 163) For Eliade the Notre-Dame de Paris is seen as a holy place, a sacred space that connects the mundane to the divine. Again, in Eliade’s lens the Notre-Dame is a space where there is the manifestation of the sacred, this is what he calls “hierophany” when he states that “Every sacred space implies a hierophany, an irruption of the sacred that results in detaching a territory from the surrounding cosmic milieu and making it qualitatively different.” (Eliade, 164) The cathedral serves as a space where the sacred becomes manifest, illustrated by its use for religious rituals and pilgrimages. Notre-Dame’s architecture, such as its stained glass and gothic spires, could be analyzed as symbolic of humanity’s yearning to transcend the earthly and connect with the eternal. As for the symbolic dimension of the elements that make up the architecture of Notre-Dame, Eliade opined that “a sacred place constitutes a break in the homogeneity of space, this beak is symbolized by an opening by which passage from one cosmic region to another is made possible, communication with heaven is expressed by one or another of certain images, all of which refer to the axis mundi.” (Eliade, 166)

The destruction of the Notre-Dame de Paris by fire was an event which, seen in Eliade’s lens, can be understood as a rupture in the sacred space of Notre-Dame. When there is a rupture in the sacred space, it affects both the contact with the transcendent and the existence in the world as Eliade declares “Life is not possible without an opening toward the transcendent, in other words, human beings cannot live in chaos. Once contact with the transcendent is lost, existence in the world ceases to be possible.” (Eliade, 166) He might analyze the emotional and spiritual reactions to the fire as evidence of the cathedral’s role as a place where the divine manifests. The widespread mourning and the commitment to rebuilding could be interpreted as attempts to restore the sacred and reestablish the connection between the community and the divine. Durkheim would have emphasized the unifying effect of the fire and its rupture of collective identity.

Thus, the analysis of the Notre-Dame, its fire and restoration through the theoretical lens of Mircea Eliade allows us to understand its sacredness as a link to the divine, the spiritual rupture caused by the fire and the attempt to restore sacredness through its restoration.

Clifford Geertz

To Begin with, Clifford Geertz defines Religion as a “system of symbols” (Geertz, 59) that makes sense of the world through narratives, rituals, and practices that define cultural values. That being, Geertz would analyze Notre-Dame as part of a symbolic system that conveys meaning through its rituals, architecture, and narratives. The cathedral could be seen as a cultural text that represents the moral and ethical values of Catholicism. He might focus on how the symbols within Notre-Dame (e.g., the cross, altars, and statues) establish enduring moods and motivations, embedding religious meanings deeply within the cultural fabric of French society. Geertz means by symbol “any object, act, event, quality, or relation serves as a vehicle for a conception – the conception is the symbol’s meaning” (Geertz, 59)

In Geertz’s lens the fire that destroyed Notre-Dame could be seen as an event that disrupted the symbolic system embodied by Notre-Dame. The cathedral functions as a repository of cultural and religious symbols, and the fire highlighted its role in shaping collective moods and motivations. “A motivation is a persisting tendency, a chronic inclination to perform certain sorts of acts and experience certain sorts of feelings in certain sorts of situations…” (Geertz, 62) By interpreting the event of the fire at the cathedral and its restoration, Geertz might emphasize how the event reactivated symbolic narratives about resilience, heritage, and faith, demonstrating how deeply Notre-Dame’s symbolism is embedded in the cultural fabric of France and beyond.

Thus, the analyzing the Notre-Dame de Paris cathedral, its fire and its restoration through the theoretical lens of Clifford Geertz draws our attention to the meanings conveyed through the Notre-Dame symbols and the reactivation of symbolic narratives tied to Notre-Dame.

Together, Emile Durkheim, Mircea Eliade and Clifford Geertz perspectives show that Notre-Dame is not only an architectural masterpiece but also a complex symbol of faith, power, and culture that operates at the intersection of religion and society. Through these perspectives, the Notre-Dame fire emerges as a multidimensional event, embodying themes of loss, resilience, power, and cultural significance.

Face Recognition System and Homeland Security

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Many years ago, face recognition system has been a technological dream for some people who were specifically involved in the research, and a fiction for others who had no idea of what could be done. At that time, anyone who had heard on such a technological project, had probably wondered: how will that be possible? How would that be done? According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2008, May), “Face recognition is a biometric technology that measures unique facial characteristics to identify and verify an individual.” Furthermore, Richler, Cheung, and Gauthier (2001) noted that, “The concept of holistic processing is a cornerstone of face recognition research.” However, the events of September 11th gave a new twist to the evolution of facial recognition technology. From its invention until now, facial recognition system has undergone enormous progress and has impacted some industries such as intelligence agencies, healthcare, and business. Homeland security has always been one of the main concerns for all Americans, and most importantly, a focus every four year on the United States presidential debates. As terrorist’s networks are expanding and multiply, the security of citizens is threatened. Ciampa (2015), observed that, “Random shootings, suicide car bombings, airplane hijackings, and other types of physical violence occur around the world with increasing frequency.” (p.3) Therefore, at the challenge of the insecurity caused by the growth of terrorism, facial recognition system seems to be an appropriate tool that helps prevent potential terrorist attacks and provide homeland security by identifying and stalking the criminals and terrorists wherever they are.

Current Use.

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Depending on the domain, face recognition system is differently used but for the same purpose: the security. Li and Jain (2011), have stated that, “As a biometric system, a face recognition system operates in either or both of two modes: (1) face verification (or authentication), and (2) face identification (or recognition).” (p.2) Important to realize that intelligence agencies are likely more interested at face recognition technology, since it helps them accomplish effectively their job. That is to say, intelligence agencies use the technology to identify criminals and, if necessary, respond to potential threats that would have been planned by terrorists. For instance, three days after the 2013 bombing in Boston marathon, O’Neill (2013), reported that, “The FBI publishes surveillance photos of the bombing suspects on its website.” If FBI was able to identify the suspects amid a large crowd like the one gathered that day in Boston for the marathon, that was because they used face recognition technology. It did not take them long to isolate the two images and identify them to the suspects. Thus, the use of face recognition technology in the context of fighting insecurity deserves to get everyone’s approval. For this reason, I totally agree with Cordesman (2002) as he pointed out that, “Homeland defense must respond to the full range of threats.” (p.13)

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Whereas, face recognition software in smartphones is used as a feature that helps secure the device from robbery. In this case, face recognition technology in smartphones is mainly used as password, preventing anybody else who is not the owner to use the device without a prior authorization. The use of face recognition in this context is not bad either. So, when does the use of facial recognition technology become a security problem against its users? Let’s consider the security aspects of face recognition system.

Security Aspects.

Data privacy and human rights seem to be real concerns when it comes to think of the security aspects of face recognition system. In 2007, Newton, Sweeney, and Malin pointed out that, “In the context of sharing video surveillance data, a significant threat to privacy is face recognition software.” (Abstract) I agree with them, because they just made a point that many are not aware of. At the present time, people of all ages and cultures, men, women and transgenders are extensively using social networking platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Tweeter, Google+, to name but few, as communications media. They can take photos, make live videos with their smartphones, and get them posted in their virtual world. In fact, all those images are stored somewhere and are available anytime they want them. Though, it is important to note that, social media users get some of their images unpublished, they are posted on their pages, but they are kept private for them only, meaning that friends and public cannot see those images. The thing is, your data are available and viewable not for you only, but for unknown people as well. The use of face recognition technology makes people’s privacy right at risk to be violated. Your data, stored somewhere in the virtual world, can be accessed anytime by unknown people and be harmfully used against you. The unknown people can be hackers or intelligence agencies agents.

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In the same way, threat to human rights is another concern related to security aspects of face recognition system. For this reason, Rudall and Mann (2008), observed that “The questions raised about an individual human rights being put at risk is also one that is being considered by many public organizations and by leading scientists.” Indeed, the use of face recognition technology in the intelligence industry put the human rights at risk not to be respected. This will lead to a violation of the Constitution of the United States, which guarantees people protection against unreasonable searches. (U.S. Const. amend. IV.) Search means investigation, and facial recognition is a step in the investigation process. What do human rights mean for Americans? For American citizens, the value of human rights is not to be simply limited to a constitutional provision only. It means more than that, human rights are a legacy from the founding fathers of the United States of America. Moreover, human rights are part of divine norms, especially as it is written, “It is for the freedom that Christ has set us free.” (Galatians 5:1 New International Version)

Ethical and Social Implications.

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According to Langenderfer and Linnhoff (2005), “Biometric systems are quickly becoming a standard part of modern life…” As a biometric feature that can be found almost in all the devices of last release, face recognition technology has Ethical and Social implications in people everyday life. Leahy (2018), the mother of three daughters holds a master’s degree in school counseling and is a certified parent coach, has observed that a mom prevents her ninth-grader daughter using a smartphone to protect her socially, emotionally, mentally, and even physically. I think preventing a child from using a smartphone restricts them from (1) having an account in social networking platforms (2) taking pictures, (3) shooting live videos, and (4) posting images in virtual world. Therefore, it seems not to be fair, but the benefits of acting in such a way is, your child will be protected against internet’s abuse. For example, an unknown person can take her image and associate it to a group of bad people. Your child can be affected emotionally and mentally.

Future Use.

How will the technology be used in future? A good question, right? It’s a little tricky to say and predict how facial recognition system will be used in future. Few years ago, none of the consumers of technologic products such as smartphones, smart cars (autonomous cars), smart watches, etc. could say and predict the technological improvements we are all witnessing today. However, the evidence is that, the future will come with new improvements and face recognition technology may be used in the way we don’t have any idea yet. Perhaps in the future it will be imperative that each apartment be equipped with a monitoring system able to face-identify every single person who gets into the apartment. It will be interesting if automotive industry comes up with new cars designed with facial recognition technology. In fact, the technology already exists in public transportation such as buses, school buses, and metro trains. Technology is the world of wonders, and face recognition system is one of those wonders. What exists today is not the end of the whole. Time will tell, let’s wait and see.

Conclusion.

The spread of terrorism worldwide increases insecurity and the risk of terror attacks that could happen anytime. It is difficult to predict and tell when a terror attack will happen. It is not easy to identify people who are planning to carry an attack among us. It is quite difficult to know people who are working to make an attack happens. It is not evident to know what people – our neighbors – are doing in the secret, and what kind of activities they are engaged in. Given these points, besides being a security feature in some smartphones, I think face recognition technology is the best tool that helps intelligence agencies provide homeland security by monitoring, identifying and stalking criminals and suspects anytime and everywhere.